The Influence of Darwin's "The Origin of Species" on George Eliot's writing.
Interpretation of 3 Eliot's novels: "The Mill on the Floss", "Daniel Deronda", "Middlemarch", and one poem "Brother and Sister" within the context of Darwin's work.
Joanna Zgadzaj, MA
The influence of Darwin's The origin of Species on George Eliot's writing The Mill on the Floss, Middlemarch, Daniel Deronda, The Spanish Gypsy)
Darwin's The Origin of Species was published in 1859 at the time of religious and social controversy. The long-sanctioned position of the human being, that is the creation of Gods hands, was suddenly shaken with the publication of Darwin's work. "Darwin's work caused a sensation, not to say a scandal, partly because it implied that, just as there was no divine origin of species, so there was no divine origin of man, in fact, man was just another species, a highly developed ape"1 We must keep in mind that Darwin's impact was greater at first on literature than on science. Still, there was the question of how the elements of animal's characteristics become added to the whole system of evolution. The natural selection Darwin was writing about, was understood as a kind of lottery and it could not serve as a reliable source of explanation for paleontological processes. Therefore, not many biologists accepted Darwin's ideas; still it made an incredible impact on Victorian writers.
The idea of evolution was the main element of Darwin's theory. Darwin dedicated three chapters of his work to it, that is: Struggle of Existence, Natural Selection; or the Survival of the Fittest and The Laws of Variation. The animal world was mainly of his interest. These were Victorians writers who used Darwin's ideas to portray the behaviour of their protagonists, writers such as Thomas Hardy, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Thomas Huxley and George Eliot. T.H. Huxley and J. Tyndall dealt with Darwin's ideas from the scientific point of view. They were great supporters of Darwin. T. Hardy, A.Tennyson and G. Eliot were literary followers of Darwin's thoughts. Each of them took different aspect of Darwin's work like man and nature in case of T. Hardy and A. Tennyson. However it was G. Eliot who gave most importance to human relations with regard to ideas presented in The Origin of Species. Publication of G. Eliot's novels brought new light to the Victorian novel. She not only moved into human thought by analysing people's behaviour but also added modern theories to her writing. Her novels were not written to entertain but to raise uncertainty in the reader. The reader was to be presented with serious moral and religious inquiries with no certain answers.
George Eliot began her interest with the theory of evolution since 1851. She discussed it with her friend Herbert Spencer so when The Origin of Species was published she immediately read it. She then wrote: "But to me the Development theory and all other explanations of process by which things came to be, produce a feeble expression compared with the mystery that lies under the process. (...) Natural selection is not always good and depends on many caprices of very foolish animals"2 Her characters become the mirrors of her ideas concerning the idea of natural selection on the basis of Darwin's work.
The Mill on the Floss is the first book where she included Darwinian ideas of evolution like survival of the fittest and struggle for existence. Her last two books are the masterpieces of her writing. The reader can notice a tremendous development from the first novel to the last two, Daniel Deronda and Middlemarch. Characters are much more sophisticated. They make choices conditioned on natural selection but also on their own character and attitude towards the world.
We must bear in mind also other issues which occur in Eliot's novels yet not mentioned here such as: the idea of microscope and telescope, deterministic organisation with sacrifice of the individual, myth and mystics, class race with regards to Jews and animal imagery. All these aspects bear the trace of Darwin's influence.
I. Male- female relationship
George Eliot was detailed observer of her epoch. She noticed that human conduct was very similar to the animal behaviour described in The Origin of Species. In the chapter four entitled Natural Selection; or the Survival of the Fittest Darwin presents the idea of sexual selection in the animal world. G. Eliot sustains this observation with the description of some of the characters. Yet, she puts more emphasis on the female behaviour towards men rather than the other way round. There are also numerous scenes where men are the active agents of the situation but generally those are women who try to attract males. What Darwin stressed was the appearance that matters most for both sexes. For Eliot it is not only appearance but also additional requirements like money, breeding or having a title, essential requirements in men?s world.
The idea of well-arranged marriage is taken under observation from many angles. Definitely it is important to marry a good family and "marry a million" [DD 92]. "Young people should think of their families in marrying. I set a bad example - married a poor clergyman" [M 64] The successive generation will follow the patter of their parents. The offspring will inherit the bad or good characteristic from their parents what Eliot stresses in the above presented example.
In The Mill of the Floss, there is a change in the pattern of inheriting certain virtues, it gains the aspect of unpredictability in the example of Maggie and Tom Tulliver. It is Maggie who is cleverer than her brother Tom. Eliot surprisingly sets and instance of a genetic change in a girl and a boy. It is Maggie who learns faster and is ready to get involved into conversation with men. Tom, as a boy, inherited all the virtues attributed to women. Their father fees this not right that Maggie is the way Tom was supposed to be. The girl has genetically more 'male' virtues. Tom has interest of both parents. Also parents stand in opposition to their daughter. Mother prefers Tom and defends father who invest all his resources into his son's education. Maggie, who has inherited all the good virtues, can gain neither interest of her father nor her mother.
Eliot presents a set of steps before the actual marriage takes place. The whole process starts with fixing the proper appearance e.g. discussion of Gwendolen's dress for the party. The next step is proper behaviour towards males. A great impact on appearance and behaviour is presented because women have nothing else to offer. Women for men are creatures who do not think. "Mr Brooke: 'Your sex are not thinkers'" [M 52] In Daniel Deronda Mr Grandcourt will express this idea even more emphatically "Infernal idiots that women are!" [DD 260] Later comes the observation of the two, as en example meeting of Deronda and Gwendolen in Daniel Deronda or Maggie and Stephen in The Mill of the Floss and Lydgate and Rosamond in Middlemarch.
Eliot presents male -female relations as a constant rivalry. I will discuss this aspect in the following parts. What Darwin had in mind was the physical fight of two males for a female. Eliot presents a metaphorical fight between males where the decisive factor is position, amount of money or appearance ? the elements I have mentioned at the beginning of this part. As an example we can look at Mr Farebrother and Fred in Middlemarch. Fred has nothing but love for Mary. Mr Farebrother is the perfect match for a woman with his position, money and appearance whereas Fred is not only poor but also a clergyman. The fight between the two males appears to be a mere game. It is worth noticing here that Eliot does not follow the pattern of behaviour of animalise set by Darwin. The explanation lies in one of her letters: "Natural selection is not always good and depends on many caprices of very foolish animals"3 mentioned earlier. The examples where the winner is not the fittest will follow in her novels.
Eliot supports also Darwin's idea of humble and submissive female. She present the pattern followed by families whose members are to get married. The idea of humbleness for the woman is taught from the earliest days of her life. Eliot presents this idea within the context of human environment adding additional factor not present in the animal world such a money or social position.
The relationship between male and female, the code of conduct they follow is one of the major and most visible pictures in Eliot's novels with regard to Darwin's work. The bases for analyses of her protagonists are Darwin's ideas. Yet, in case of her characters certain behaviour is not obvious and rejects the development theory.
II. Relationship between siblings
In each of the discussed here novels Eliot portrays characters that should be genetically weak but it is otherwise. The brother-sister and sister-sister relationship enables us to see echoes of the biological and social Darwinism. In the first part, I have showed that there are some fixed roles between male and female that they should accept and fulfil. In a brother-sister relationship similarly to male-female relations, it is also the stronger person who sets the rules and gains a higher position in the society. The Darwinian idea of the survival of the fittest is adopted in Eliot's novels. I have also showed an example of a fight between males for a female. This fight can also be moved on the level between sexes: male-female. In case of brother-sister and sister-sister relationship, this fight is not so strong. The aim is not to destroy the rival but to gain a certain social position. Because here characters are connected with each other by blood, therefore they cannot destroy each other.
In Eliot's novels, females are generally considered as being biologically weaker than males. In a brother-sister relationship, it is always brother who is supposed to be physically and mentality stronger. If a male child is born earlier it gains a better social position than a girl born later. "The brother's influence depends on the woman's relationship with her father and the other men she meets. If the family's attitude is the brother is superior, that can damage her self-worth. But of parents accept both, children have equal potential, then having a brother is rewarding."4
Such situation is presented in the Maggie-Tom relations from The Mill on the Floss. Being the first child enables Tom to receive entire parent's support and a better social position in the family. Her brother does not share Maggie's interest in business matters. Maggie cannot have proper education, although she is smarter than Tom, because of her sex: "Mr Tulliver: 'It's a pity but what she'd been a lad - she'd ha'been a match for lawyers, she would.? [MF 68] It is not only her father who is constantly remind her about her deficiency, her sex. From the very beginning Tom emphasis the difference between them based on sex: "I've got a great deal more money than you, because I'm boy. (...) I shall be a man, and you only have five-shilling pieces, because you're only a girl." [MF 87] However, although they constantly fight with each other for the social and family position, they also love each other. Maggie cannot involve herself into a serious relationship with another male bearing in mind what Tom would say. As they grow older, they begin to seek their aim in life. Yet, both want to recover the mill. Going their own way and looking for fulfilments brings them apart, until a final catastrophe of the flood which reunites them forever. Within the range of novels here discussed, It is the only case in Eliot's novel when both brother and sister unite and die together. Here, the bond between the sexes is the strongest.
Similarly, such relationship is presented in Daniel Deronda between Mirah Lpidoth and her brother Ezra Mordecai. Here, Eliot stresses two important issues. Mirah is not only looking for the forlorn brother but she is also looking for her identity. Her family are Jews. Unity with her brother means accepting strict rules of his religion. Eliot presents the reader with immediate insight in both characters. However, they have not met yet. At the beginning of the novel, before unification, they are both presented as strong personalities regardless their sex. Mirah escapes from her father and proves herself a courageous and independent woman. However, the moment she finally finds her family she is ready to sacrifice her freedom and to live according to the rules set by her brother. Mirah accepts a new role and identity now, the one of a mother for the whole family.
While speaking of the relationship between siblings I have to mention a poem "Brother and Sister" It summarises the whole idea of brother-sister relationship. Between years of 1864-65 Eliot wrote a series of Spanish Poetry and entitled the whole volume The Spanish Gypsy. In the poem "Brother and Sister" a girl is totally submissive. She thinks her brother to be the best and the wisest man in her life. She humbly accepts her position. '(...) and I thought of joy/ That I should have my share, though he had more,/ Because he was the elder and a boy." [SG 580] There is also a sexual desire in the male and the female: "The fear, the love, the primal passionate store,/ Whose shaping impulses make manhood whole." [SG 583] The sister is aware of the difference between her and her brother yet agrees with it. The final two stanzas bring the image of divorce with the end of the child-world. The image of being obedient and at the same time being secure under brother's protection will never come back. The last two verses bring a puzzle: "But were another childhood-world my share,/ I would be born a little sister there." [SG 589] Sister feels quite comfortable and secure in the relationship. Once she escapes the situation she will never gain this security. A question arises if women want to be submissive. In none of the presented novels here is the sister so regretful of reaching the age of self-freedom. Interestingly enough, the exact poem can be read as a reproach against the stereotypical position of brother and sister, male and female. The last verses could be interpreted as a doomed female existence who is always to be little sister.
Eliot proves that Darwin's theories can be assigned to masses but not to individuals, people different from the society. Let us proceed now to Middlemarch and Daniel Deronda. These novels present a more sophisticated approach in characters' presentation in comparison to The Mill on the Floss. I have already mentioned the relationship between Mirah and Ezra from Daniel Deronda and no I will present relations between Rosamond and Fred Vincy from Middlemarch. Rosamond is the stronger character here. In the first part I showed Fred as a weak male in a male fight for Mary. Contrary to his sister who knows what she wants from life. She is a proud creature, driven by impulses. In fact, from the appearance she resembles Maggie: both have black, curly hair and there are people around them who do not accept those devilish-like look. Rosamond's inner strength will enable her to find a man who would be similar to her "She has finally found a man as proud as herself" [DD 315] On the contrary, Fred is not sure of his attractiveness to win Mary. Rosamond does not feel submitted to her brother, neither Fred tries to control her. There are instances in the text where Rosamond is very critical towards her brother.
Eliot portrays also sister-sister relationship. It is Dorothea and Celia Brook. As in male-female relation there was a stronger personality. Also in this case, this pattern is preserved. From the very beginning of the book Dorothea is more active than her sister. Celia perfectly realises Darwinian issues. She dresses nicely to attract other males, is obedient to them, pays much attention to their appearance. Such behaviour becomes the point of Dorothea' critique: "It is so painful in you, Celia, that you should look at human beings as if they were merely animals with a toilette, and never see the great soul in man's face." [M 15]. Because 'Celia's mind had never been though powerful" she marries a handsome and rich Mr Chettam whereas Dorothea, who seeks intellectuals, marries Mr Casaubon. After the marriage Celia follows the pattern of a typical Victorian woman, mainly she gives birth to a child, a male. Whereas, Dorothea remains childless. Dorothea is more independent and intellectually more developed than her sister therefore she is the active agent in the sister-sister relationship. She takes over the male's role.
III. Sexual selection with regard to main characters
The first instance of sexual selection is to be found in The Mill on the Floss. It is the relation between Maggie, Philip and Steven. Let us take the two characters of the boys first. The two men represent the struggle between two males for a female. Biologically, Stephen is a better partner for Maggie. He is strong, handsome and decisive. He is a perfect biological match for Maggie. In contrast, there is Philip who is handicapped with "puny, miserable body" [MF 448] and who is unable to fulfil Maggie's desires and needs He is often criticised by Tom and perceived by the society as a wicked creature unable to provide basic needs for a woman. He does not fit to the system as man. "Tom: 'A love for a deformed man would be odious in any woman - in a sister intolerable'" [MF 448]
It is interesting to notice the relationship between Maggie and Stephen, which is almost entirely instinctive conveyed by long, mute looks rather than words. Maggie is fascinated by the strength that Philip lacks. "Stephen's impact is so powerful because he not only brings the new element of sexual attraction but he also duplicates, subsumes, and reconciles in his character the conflicting qualities of Tom and Stephen."5 Stephen is attracted to Maggie by her physical appearance whereas Philip has some understanding of her inner nature. Philip awakens in Maggie emotions of love and concupiscence, which he cannot fulfil. At this moment, the reader meets Stephen Guest who is able to realise Maggie's physical hungering. It is important to understand the connection between the two men. Stephen embodies the physical attraction for a woman in contrast to Philip who 'seems to reconcile in his character the elements previously opposed in her life, the attachment to her brother and the desire for emotional and artistic fulfilment. As well as his intellectual and artistic interest, he is gentle, sympathetic, and understanding. He would be and ideal replacement for Tom."6 Maggie finally rejects Stephen's appeal at the same time rejecting the natural law. "The survival of the fittest is not always the survival of the best, and moral factors-faithfulness, generosity, renunciation of present pleasure, duty rooted in the past - also lay their part in the evolution."7
A similar relationship between a female and two males based on either sexual or intellectual attraction is presented in Middlemarch. Both Maggie and Dorothea are alike in their characters. Their independence in expressing their own ideas is not accepted both in Maggie's and Dorothea's families. Both females become attracted to different types of men. The difference between these two lies in their choices. Dorothea is trapped in the relationship with Mr Casaubon and Will Ladislav. Mr Casaubon attracts Dorothea by his attitude to her. He does not find anything strange in her being intelligent woman. He stands for intellectual attraction for Dorothea. Mr Casaubon is a good match not only because of his high intellect that draws Dorothea to him, but because he is rich; therefore he can provide everything that a young wife needs. His age is the only drawback against him as an appropriate husband. He is 27 years older than Dorothea and his health is not too good. Marriage with him fulfils part of Dorothea's desires because there is also aspect of sexual attraction. Dorothea does not treat her husband as a sexual object. He does not excite in her sexual attraction because he is attractive to her in an intellectual way. Mr Casaubon's younger cousin awakes in her physical desire. She marries Ladislav in older to achieve her fulfils as a woman. Both men complete one another.
Daniel Deronda offers even more complicated relationship. There are actually five people who influence one another. In the foreground, there is a relationship between Gwendolen, Grandcourt and Deronda. However, there are two other women who play an important part in the life of Grandcourt and Deronda: Lydia Glasher and Mirah. Gwendolen is a strong character who believes in her power and assumes she will always win. Once her family becomes beggars she wants to marry for money not for love kin order to provide resources for her family. Grandcourt knows about it and this knowledge gives him a kind of pleasure. "(...) he believed that this girl was rather exceptional in the fact that she was not in love with him; and it seemed to him very like that if it had not been for the sudden poverty which had come over her family, she would not have accepted him (...) He enjoyed thinking of her as his future wife whose pride and spirit suited to command every on but himself. He meant to be the master of a woman, who would like to master him, and who perhaps would have been capable of mastering another man." [DD 237]
It is the business of marriage, but because both of them know about it at the very beginning, they decide to play the game. Both of them are strong characters so there is a constant rivalry between them for the position in the marriage. However, is an episode that changes this power struggle; another woman. Grandcourt has another woman in his life - Lydia Glasher. The reader meets Lydia just before the marriage takes place. She seems to be mild and unimportant, almost non existing women who came to ask Gwendolen not to get married to Grandcourt who occurs to be the father of Lydia's children. Gwendolen does not want to resign from this marriage. She is not going to lose her chance now to be rich. But Lydia does not want to lose her chance neither. She fights for the future of her children and especially for a boy who would become a heir of fortune after Grandcourt's death. This brings again to Darwin's struggle. Gwendolen and Lydia become rivals, like men fighting for a female, yet they fight for the same man. The struggle ends with Gwendolen's defeat. It is again the fight for survival.
When Gwendolen realises that that she will never have any meaningful position in this relationship, she begins to turn more and more to Deronda. There is no sexual relation between them but a mutual understating. What a disappointment meets Gwendolen when she discovers that there is a woman in Deronda's life as well. Mirah is a Jew and at the beginning Gwendolen is sure Deronda will never marry her. The choice becomes more complicated when Deronda discovers his Oregon. Being a Jew enables him to marry Mirah leaving Gwendolen on her own.
Grandcourt dies leaving all his fortune to an illegitimate child who will inherit fortune unless Gwendolen brings a child. Deronda marries a Jewish girl. Being under protection of two men, Gwendolen is suddenly left alone. After the last Deronda's meeting, Gwendolen undertakes a mental breakdown. "But when he (Deronda) had left her she sank on her knees, in hysterical crying. The distance between them was too great. She was banished soul beholding a possible life which she sinned herself way from. She was found in this way, crushed on the floor." [DD 529]
IV. Question of Origin
Darwin's The Origin of Species influenced Eliot's novels not only on the level of interrelation between male and female. In the last two novels questions of inheritance, descendant and origin are also raised. In the first part I have presented the importance of the right match between a female and a male. The idea of bearing children that will inherit not only the fortune but also a tittle is presented in the last Eliot's novels. It is interesting to notice that women with unhappy marriages do not have children like Gwendolen and Dorothea. In the Finale in Middlemarch, Eliot makes a vital conclusion concerning marriage. "Marriage, which has been born of so many narratives, is still a great beginning, as it was to Adam and Eve, who kept their honeymoon in Eden, but had their first little one among the thorns and thistles of wilderness." [M 889] From the beginning of human race men's task is to breed and it is animal instinct that draws two sexes together. Yet, through ages people have been adding new elements to this ritual like importance of money or social status.
Once issue of good breeding is raised there is another one which goes together with it. The problem of origin which is very important as is also serves as a defining problem whether the potential male or female is genetically correct. The greatest quests for origin is presented in the character of Deronda. His passion for history arises in his questions concerning his family origin. There are two turning points in his search. The first one is meeting Mirah with her search for the lost mother and brother, and meeting his mother who is believed to be dead. The renunciation with his mother, discovery of her name - identity Leonora Halm-Eberstein, adds the final piece to the puzzle of his origin. He is a Jew. He can now be fully accepted by both Mariah and her whole family.
The chapter 'Mother and son' is quite interesting as afar as Darwin's ideas are concerned. The meeting with his mother not only gives the final answer to his origin but also raises other issues concerning females. So far, the female's role was to breed and match with the strongest male so that the offspring would inherit the best values from both parents. Having a descendant was the basic function for a woman. Deronda's mother stand in opposition to so far presented theory of evolution ?I was a great singer. All the rest were poor beside me. Men followed me from country to another. I was living myriad lives in one. I did not want a child." [DD 471] Lenora thought like a boy and wanted to rule her life the way she wanted. The enforced renunciation from the life she wanted to lead not her father was a painful experience for her. "You (to Deronda) can never imagine what it is to have man's force of genius in you, and yet suffer the slavery of being a woman." [DD 474] This sentence is the strongest contradiction of stereotype that a female is a weaker creature than man is and therefore because of her sex she will never gain the same position in society as men. Lenora finally got her freedom after her father's death. She gives her child, Deronda, away to Sir Hugo Mallinger.
George Eliot was an outstanding woman among Victorian novelists. Her intellectual inquiries with a moral and religious scope, were going far beyond the Victorian society itself. Although she was fascinated with Darwin she did not follow his ideas blindly. She realised that human beings are different than animals and they are unpredictable. Forces of nature do play an important role in human behaviour. Yet. People's conduct is not only governed by natural rules of sexual selection of the survival of the fittest. Because human behaviour is to some extent unpredictable there cannot be a single rule given for the evolution of human kind. People become entangled in many relationships which from Darwin's point of view are not the right matches like Grandcourt and Lydia, Dorothea and Casaubon, Maggie and Tom. These three novels mark also the change and development in George Eliot as a writer.
List of Abbreviations:
1. DD - Eliot, George, Daniel Deronda,
2. MF - Eliot, George, The Mill on the Floss, The Penguin English Library,
3. M - Eliot, George, Middlemarch, Oxford University Press,
4. SG - Eliot, George, The Spanish Gypsy, The Warwick Edition, William Blackwood and Sons,
5. OS - Darwin, Charles, The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection of the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, Oxford University Press.
Bibliography
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